Fuel cell or electrodes with passive support

ABSTRACT

An electrode suitable for use in a fuel cell includes a passive support having pores wherein the passive support has an asymmetric pore morphology with respect to at least one dimension of the passive support; and an electrode material positioned in the pores of the passive support. An exemplary electrode includes an electrode material of a metal and/or metal oxide. An exemplary porous electrode includes a deposited electrolyte layer that blocks at least some pores of the porous electrode. An exemplary method includes reducing an electrode material positioned in pores of a passive support to create secondary porosity and/or to limit agglomeration. Other exemplary devices and/or methods are also disclosed.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The subject matter disclosed herein pertains to fuel cell, electrodes, electrolytes and frames for fuel cells or electrodes. Various fuel cells, electrodes and electrolytes rely on passive supports.

BACKGROUND

Fuel cells typically operate under conditions that are detrimental to their longevity. For example, a typical solid oxide fuel cell may operate at a temperature in excess of 700° C. At such temperatures, a variety of phenomena may cause degradation of fuel cell components. For example, metals, which are often used as electrode materials, can become mobile and agglomerate. Upon oxidation (e.g., during cooling), such agglomerates may increase in size and exert detrimental stresses on fuel cell components. Further, thermal expansion can cause significant component stresses. Thus, temperature associated degradation can reduce fuel cell efficiency and even render a fuel cell inoperable. Of course, other operating conditions may also cause fuel cell degradation. Thus, a need exists for fuel cells that can withstand and/or minimize various operating stresses, fuel cells that can operate at lower temperatures, fuel cells that do not generate significant temperature associated stresses. Various exemplary fuel cells, electrodes, and methods presented below address these and/or other needs.

SUMMARY

An electrode suitable for use in a fuel cell includes a passive support having pores wherein the passive support has an asymmetric pore morphology with respect to at least one dimension of the passive support; and an electrode material positioned in the pores of the passive support. An exemplary electrode includes an electrode material of a metal and/or metal oxide. An exemplary method includes reducing an electrode material positioned in pores of a passive support to create secondary porosity and/or to limit agglomeration. Other exemplary devices and/or methods are also disclosed.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a diagrammatic illustration of a fuel cell.

FIGS. 2A and 2B show perspective views of an exemplary isometric passive support and an exemplary asymmetric passive support, respectively.

FIG. 3 shows an exemplary plot of agglomeration rates with respect to time for various mean pore sizes.

FIG. 4 shows a diagrammatic illustration of various electrode and/or electrolyte surfaces of a fuel cell that include thermal expansion vectors.

FIG. 5 shows an exemplary plot of volume fraction versus thermal expansion for an electrode and/or an electrolyte of a fuel cell.

FIG. 6 shows an exemplary plot of a pore characteristic (e.g., pore size) versus a dimension of a passive support or electrode.

FIG. 7 shows an exemplary plot of agglomeration versus thermal expansion for various pore sizes of a passive support.

FIG. 8 shows a block diagram of an exemplary method for making an electrode based on a passive support.

FIGS. 9, 10, 11, and 12 show perspective views of various exemplary fuel cells and/or electrode and electrolyte configurations.

FIGS. 13A and 13B show exemplary methods and structures.

FIG. 14 shows a block diagram of an exemplary method for making a fuel cell based at least in part on a passive support.

FIGS. 15 and 16 show perspective views of various exemplary fuel cells and/or electrode and electrolyte configurations that include one or more flow channels.

FIGS. 17 and 18 show perspective views of various exemplary fuel cell or electrode and frame configurations.

FIG. 19 shows an exemplary method and structures for an exemplary fuel cell and frame configuration.

FIGS. 20A and 20B show a perspective view and a cross-sectional view, respectively, of an exemplary fuel cell or electrode and frame wherein the fuel cell or electrode defines an aperture.

FIG. 21 shows a block diagram of an exemplary method for making a passive support and frame.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following Detailed Description discusses exemplary fuel cells, passive supports, anodes, cathodes, fuel cell arrangements or configurations, and frames for fuel cells or electrodes. Various exemplary methods for making or using such fuel cells or fuel cell components are also discussed.

Fuel Cells

A fuel cell can generate electricity and heat by electrochemically reacting a fuel and an oxidizer using an ion conducting electrolyte for transfer of charged species without combustion. A typical fuel cell may generate an electrical potential through conversion of energy stored in a fuel (e.g., hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, etc.) and an oxidant (e.g., oxygen).

FIG. 1 shows a prior art solid oxide fuel cell 100. The fuel cell 100 includes an anode 110, a cathode 114 and an electrolyte 118. The anode 110 and the cathode 114 are electrodes while the electrolyte 118 serves as a type of membrane. In a typical operation of the fuel cell 100, an oxidant containing gas such as air is provided to the cathode 114, which may be referred to as an “air electrode”, while a fuel is provided to the anode 110, which may be referred to as a “fuel electrode”. For example, the cathode 114 may receive oxygen (from air) and the anode 110 may receive hydrogen (and optionally carbon monoxide, methane and other hydrocarbons). In this example, oxygen and hydrogen react to form water. This reaction is exothermic and it has an associated potential whereby the fuel cell 100 provides a flow path for electrons according to the potential.

Essential to operation of the fuel cell 100 is the electrolyte 118. As mentioned, the electrolyte 118 acts as a type of membrane, for example, an ion-conducting membrane. In the example given, the electrolyte 118 is an oxygen ion conducting membrane. If H₂ is used as a fuel, two protons or hydrogen ions are formed at the anode 110 from each H₂ molecule due to removal of electrons. An electron flow path or circuit 124 allows these electrons to become available at the cathode 114, which helps to drive oxygen ion formation from O_(2·). Oxygen ions conduct or permeate the electrolyte 118 and the anode 110, where the oxygen ions form water with protons or hydrogen ions. The electrochemical process may be represented by the following reaction equations: O₂+4e⁻→2O²⁻ 2H₂→4H⁺+4e⁻ 4H⁺+2O²⁻→2H₂O

At a temperature of 25° C. and a pressure of 1 ATM, a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell according to the reaction equations has an equilibrium electromotive force (e.m.f.) of approximately 1.2 V.

In general, an electrolyte should have a high transport rate for desired ionic species while preventing transport of unwanted species. Various ceramics (e.g., electroceramics) have properties suitable for use as electrolyte. For example, a group of electroceramics, referred to sometimes as “fast ion conductors”, “rapid ion conductors” or “superionic conductors”, may support high transport rates for desired ionic species. A commonly used ceramic for oxygen ion ion-conducting membranes is yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ). For an YSZ electrolyte to provide sufficient oxygen ion conductivity, fairly high temperatures are required (e.g., typically greater than 700° C.), even for a thin electrolyte (e.g., less than approximately 10 μm). Of course, numerous costs are associated with operation at such high temperatures. For example, high cost alloys (e.g., superalloys, etc.) may be required as a fuel cell housing thereby increasing cost substantially. Stresses at such operating temperatures may also degrade anodes, cathodes and/or electrolytes and thereby increase cost. For example, a cathode may have a coefficient of thermal expansion that differs from that of an electrolyte. In such a situation, substantial shear stresses may develop at the interface between the cathode and the electrolyte and cause microfractures of the cathode and/or the electrolyte which, in turn, may diminish interfacial contact area and/or the ability of the electrolyte to reject unwanted species.

Further, operating temperatures and/or temperature cycling may have a detrimental impact on anode, cathode and/or electrolyte characteristics. For example, one or more metal components in an anode may have a tendency to agglomerate above certain temperatures. Temperature and/or oxidation-reduction cycling may also promote agglomeration. Agglomeration is known to occur in Ni-YSZ cermet anodes of solid oxide fuel cells and to be generally related to factors such as current density and fuel utilization. For example, evenly distributed nickel particles are desirable to maximize the interface or three-phase-boundary (TPB) between an anode and an electrolyte. Agglomeration occurs throughout an anode and causes an increase in “particle size” and a reduction in evenness of particle distribution. These effects decrease effective TPB and thereby increase anode losses. Eventually, a disparate distribution may result that wholly compromises interparticle (or interagglomerate) conductivity.

An agglomerate may further degrade an electrode upon oxidation. Oxidation typically occurs during and after cooling (e.g., as a part of a fuel cell's operational cycling). In Ni-YSZ cermet anodes, Ni particles or agglomerates typically oxidize during and/or after cooling. Upon oxidation, the particles or agglomerates increase in size. After a few heating and cooling cycles particles or agglomerates may become large enough to exert significant forces (e.g., stress) on, in this example, the ceramic YSZ matrix. Thus, oxidation and/or agglomeration may degrade or break a matrix and render an electrode inoperable or prohibitively inefficient.

Thus, as mentioned in the Background section, a need exists for fuel cells that can withstand and/or minimize various operating stresses (e.g., reduction, oxidation, temperature, cycling, etc.), fuel cells that can operate at lower temperatures, fuel cells that do not generate significant temperature associated stresses. Various exemplary fuel cells and/or electrodes described herein meet these and/or other needs.

To lower the operating temperature, either the conductivity of YSZ must be improved, or other suitable electrolyte materials must be used to substitute or augment YSZ. In general, conductivity is a function of electrolyte thickness wherein conductivity decreases with increasing thickness; thus, a thinner electrolyte may have less overall resistance, noting that the electrolyte typically has a resistance higher than an anode or a cathode. Thin film technologies have allowed for production of dense electrolytes having thicknesses of between, for example, approximately 0.5 μm and approximately 5 μm. Techniques for producing such electrolytes include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), which has been used to create electrolytes having a thickness of approximately 1 μm, atomic layer deposition (ALD), which has been used to create electrolytes having a thickness of approximately a few atomic layers, and other techniques, some of which are mentioned below. In addition, some of these techniques may be used to deposit electrode material. In various exemplary fuel cells, or components thereof, electrode and/or electrolyte may have larger thicknesses, for example, of approximately 100 μm or more. Film deposition techniques such as tape casting, screen-printing, etc., have been used to deposit electrode material and/or electrolyte material in thickness up to an beyond 100 μm. Further, an electrolyte should be “fully dense” to avoid short circuits due to passage of unwanted species through the electrolyte.

For a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), a ceramic and metal composite, sometimes referred to as a cermet, of nickel-YSZ may serve as an anode while Sr-doped lanthanum manganite (La_(1-x)Sr_(x)MnO₃) may serve as a cathode. Of course various other materials may be used for the anode 110 or the cathode 114. To generate a reasonable voltage, a plurality of fuel cells may be grouped to form an array or “stack”. In a stack, an interconnect is often used to join anodes and cathodes, for example, an interconnect that includes a doped lanthanum chromite (e.g., La_(0.8)Ca_(0.2)CrO₃). Of course other materials may be suitable.

It is to be understood that a fuel cell may be one of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), proton conducting ceramic fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, polymer electrolyte membranes (PEM) fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, solid acid fuel cells, direct methanol PEM fuel cells and others (see, e.g., other examples below). Various exemplary fuel cells presented herein are solid oxide fuel cells.

An electrolyte may be formed from any suitable material. Various exemplary electrolytes as presented herein are at least one of oxygen ion conducting membrane electrolytes, proton conducting electrolytes, carbonate (CO₃ ²⁻) conducting electrolytes, OH⁻conducting electrolytes, hydride ion (H⁻) conducting and mixtures thereof. Regarding hydride ion electrolyte fuel cells, advances have been as to a molten hydride electrolyte fuel cell.

Yet other exemplary electrolytes are at least one of cubic fluorite structure electrolytes, doped cubic fluorite electrolytes, proton-exchange polymer electrolytes, proton-exchange ceramic electrolytes, and mixtures thereof. Further, an exemplary electrolyte is at least one of yttria-stabilized zirconia, samarium doped-ceria, gadolinium doped-ceria, La_(a)Sr_(b)Ga_(c)Mg_(d)O_(3−δ), and mixtures thereof, which may be particularly suited for use in solid oxide fuel cells.

Anode and cathode may be formed from any suitable material, as desired and/or necessitated by a particular end use. Various exemplary anodes and/or cathodes are at least one of metal(s), ceramic(s) and cermet(s). Some non-limitative examples of metals which may be suitable for an anode include at least one of nickel, copper, platinum and mixtures thereof. Some non-limitative examples of ceramics which may be suitable for an anode include at least one of Ce_(x)Sm_(y)O_(2−δ), Ce_(x)Gd_(y)O_(2−δ), La_(x)Sr_(y)Cr_(z)O_(3−δ), and mixtures thereof. Some non-limitative examples of cermets which may be suitable for an anode include at least one of Ni-YSZ, Cu-YSZ, Ni-SDC, Ni-GDC, Cu-SDC, Cu-GDC, and mixtures thereof.

Some non-limitative examples of metals which may be suitable for a cathode include at least one of silver, platinum, ruthenium, rhodium and mixtures thereof. Some non-limitative examples of ceramics which may be suitable for a cathode include at least one of Sm_(x)Sr_(y)CoO_(3−δ), Ba_(x)La_(y)CoO_(3−δ), Gd_(x)Sr_(y)CoO_(3−δ),

Passive Supports

As described herein, passive supports may support anodes, cathodes and/or electrolytes. In general, a passive support does not conduct electrons or ions to any significant degree. Examples of passive supports include, but are not limited to, aluminum oxide-based supports, magnesium oxide-based supports, zirconium oxide-based supports, titanium oxide-based supports, silicon carbide-based supports, steel-based supports, and mixtures thereof. Of course, such materials may have any of a variety of phase structures. For example, an aluminum oxide-based support may include α-Al₂O₃, γ-Al₂O₃, and/or other phases of Al₂O₃. An exemplary support may optionally includes magnesia and silica, for example, in a ratio of approximately 2:1 (e.g., two parts of magnesia (MgO)₂ to one part of silica SiO₂). Of course, other combinations of materials are also possible. Passive support material(s) may have desirable hydrophobicity-hydrophilicity, surface charge, and/or surface texture. Suitable supports can withstand temperatures associated with operation of various fuel cells described herein. Suitable supports may have any of a variety of geometries, such as, but not limited to, planar, tubular, cylindrical, and/or monolithic with one or more channels.

Passive supports are typically porous. Pores may be characterized by parameters such as pore volume, pore size, pore size distribution (e.g., mean pore size, etc.), and pore morphology, especially with respect to one or more passive support dimensions. Passive supports may also have some non-contiguous (e.g., dead end) and/or inaccessible pores (e.g., closed cells or voids). Of course, voids do not add to the usable porosity or total volume of usable pores. FIG. 2A shows an exemplary passive support 200 having substantially isometric pore morphology (e.g., over volume of the support 200 with respect to the exemplary coordinate system) while FIG. 2B shows an exemplary passive support 220 having asymmetric pore morphology with respect to a dimension of the support such as a trans-support thickness (e.g., along the z-axis) (e.g., pore size can vary with respect to one or more dimensions of the support). Such supports may have average pore sizes of approximately 0.01 μm (e.g., approximately 10 nanometers or approximately 100 Å) to approximately 100 μm (e.g., approximately 0.1 mm) or more. Such supports may have any of a variety of porosities (e.g., macro, micro, meso, homogeneous, heterogeneous, interconnected, open-cell, closed-cell, dead-end, etc.) and such supports may have any of a variety of tortuosities (e.g., short, long, angular, and linear transport lengths, etc.). Any particular pore may have asymmetry and/or symmetry in one or more dimensions; note that the terms “asymmetry” or “asymmetric” and “symmetry” or “symmetric” may apply to a geometric description of any particular pore, as well as to pore morphology of a passive support, wherein pore morphology refers to how pore characteristics vary in a passive support. In general, a passive support has a definable total volume that is approximately equal to the sum of individual pore volumes (open volume) and occluded volume (volume occupied by passive support material). Of course, occluded volume may also include void volume where appropriate.

The substantially isometric passive support 200 includes an exemplary enlarged cross-sectional view of the support 202. In this example, the pores are aligned substantially along the z-axis (e.g., from top to bottom). Of course, pores may have other shapes and/or be interconnected across other dimensions (e.g., x, y, etc.) as well.

The asymmetric passive support 220 has a first mean pore size over a first thickness or region 230 and a different, second mean pore size over a second thickness or region 240 of the passive support 220. The asymmetric passive support 220 includes an exemplary enlarged cross-sectional view of the support 232 for the first region 230 and an exemplary enlarged cross-sectional view of the support 242 for the second region 240. In these examples, the pores are aligned substantially along the z-axis (e.g., from top to bottom). Of course, pores may have other shapes and/or be interconnected across other dimensions (e.g., x, y, etc.) as well. For example, porosity, tortuosity, pore volume and/or occluded volume may vary over one or more dimensions or regions of the passive support 220. Porosity typically approximates open porosity because closed or inaccessible porosity (e.g., voids) is generally undesirable and a small fraction of total porosity. An exemplary asymmetric passive support includes aluminum oxide or alumina. For example, an asymmetric passive support may have an α-Al₂O₃ phase that defines a region having a large mean pore size and a γ-Al₂O₃ phase that defines a region having a small mean pore size. Of course an asymmetric passive support may include other materials and/or phases (see, e.g., aforementioned materials).

Passive Supports and Agglomeration

As mentioned, agglomeration can degrade performance of a fuel cell. In particular, agglomeration is known to be associated with a decrease in anode performance. Various exemplary anodes presented herein exhibit (i) no agglomeration, (ii) minimal agglomeration and/or (iii) predictable agglomeration. Further, various exemplary anodes presented herein exhibit asymmetric agglomeration. Yet further, use of a passive support can enhance stability of an electrode and/or an electrolyte.

FIG. 3 shows a plot 300 of normalized agglomeration rate versus time. The time may be an operation time (e.g., a fuel cell operation time) or another time where agglomeration may occur (e.g., a reduction time, etc.). Three curves are shown for different mean passive support pore sizes: d1 ₅₀, d2 ₅₀ and d3 ₅₀, where d1 ₅₀<d2 ₅₀<d3 ₅₀. According to the plot 300, the agglomeration rate decreases with respect to time. Further, the agglomeration rate decreases more quickly for a smaller mean pore size (e.g., d1 ₅₀) compared to a larger mean pore size (e.g., d3 ₅₀). The relationship between pore size and agglomeration is at least in part due to steric limitations whereby a passive support with smaller pores helps to preserve an even dispersion of electrode and/or electrolyte material. In addition, the total agglomeration may be approximated by the area under a curve or the integral of the agglomeration rate with respect to time. Thus, a judicious selection of passive support pore size can be used to limit agglomeration and/or yield predictable agglomeration. Of course, other passive support characteristics (e.g., tortuosity, pore morphology, etc.) may be selected to affect agglomeration rate and/or total agglomeration.

Factors such as operation temperature, melting temperature of material deposited into pores of a passive support and corresponding Tamman temperatures (e.g., approximately 0.5 times the bulk melting temperature in degrees K), etc., are optionally used in selecting a passive support and/or characteristics thereof. In particular, pore size (e.g., mean pore size), pore asymmetry in the passive support and/or pore wall surface properties are optionally used in selecting a passive support. For example, an exemplary asymmetric support has pores having cross-sections such as those shown in the enlarged cross-sectional views 232, 242 of FIG. 2B to minimize or control agglomeration of any material deposited into such pores. Regarding pore wall surface properties, some surface properties promote mobility and/or agglomeration while other surface properties hinder mobility and/or agglomeration.

Passive Supports and Thermal Expansion

As mentioned, thermal expansion and mismatch of thermal expansions between fuel cell components (e.g., interconnects, electrodes, electrolyte, etc.) can degrade performance of a fuel cell. In particular, thermal expansion and/or thermal expansion mismatches are known to be associated with a decrease in fuel cell performance. Various exemplary electrodes and/or electrolytes presented herein exhibit (i) matched or approximately matched thermal expansions and/or (ii) minimal thermal expansion. Further, various exemplary electrodes and/or electrolytes presented herein exhibit asymmetric thermal expansion. For example, an asymmetric thermal expansion may have a thermal expansion that approaches that of another fuel cell component in a direction approaching the other fuel cell component (e.g., an electrode that has thermal expansion approximating an electrolyte near the electrode/electrolyte interface). Yet further, various exemplary anodes may exhibit agglomeration characteristics as described above and matched, minimal and/or asymmetric thermal expansion.

FIG. 4 shows planar representations 400 of a lower electrode 410, an upper electrode 414 and an electrolyte 418, which is disposed between the lower electrode 410 and the upper electrode 414. Planar vectors appear on the planar representations wherein line thickness and length correspond to thermal expansion rates and/or thermal expansion. While planar representations are suited to illustrate most issues associated with the electrode-electrolyte interfaces, thermal expansion may also occur along one or more other dimensions (e.g., volumetric thermal expansion). A typical equation used for linear thermal expansion equates change in linear distance (ΔL) with a dimensional coefficient of thermal expansion (α), a length (L) and a temperature differential (ΔT). A typical equation used for volumetric thermal expansion equates change in volume (ΔV) with a volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion (β), a volume (V) and a temperature differential (ΔT).

FIG. 5 shows an exemplary plot 500 of volume fraction of electrode or electrolyte material that can be placed in pores of a passive support versus thermal expansion of a passive support having such a material deposited within as being characteristic of the electrode or electrolyte material. The line 510, which may be a curve, represents a relationship between volume fraction and thermal expansion characteristics. A volume fraction of zero may correspond to a passive support that does not have any electrode or electrolyte material deposited within (see, e.g., schematic at a volume fraction of zero) or it may correspond to a passive support that does not have accessible volume. In this instance, such a region will have thermal expansion characteristics (e.g., expansion, stresses, etc.) that depend on the passive support. A volume fraction of one-half may correspond to a total volume half occupied by passive support and half occupied or occupiable by electrode or electrolyte material (see, e.g., schematic at a volume fraction of one-half). In this instance, thermal expansion characteristics for such a region will depend on the passive support and the material deposited within the passive support. A volume fraction of one may correspond to a total volume occupied entirely by electrode or electrolyte material (i.e., a volume not having passive support within). In this instance, thermal expansion characteristics for such a region will depend on the electrode or electrolyte material. Accordingly, a volume fraction of zero corresponds to a passive support having thermal expansion characteristics that do not depend on electrode and/or electrolyte, unless a boundary of the passive support has an adjacent electrode and/or electrolyte. Further, a volume fraction of one corresponds to an electrode and/or electrolyte having thermal expansion characteristics that do not depend on passive support, unless a boundary of the electrode and/or electrolyte has an adjacent passive support.

In general, various exemplary electrodes and/or electrolytes presented herein will have electrode or electrolyte material deposited within a porous passive support and/or electrode or electrolyte material deposited adjacent to a passive support. Hence, a plot such as that shown in FIG. 5 may assist in selecting a passive support having suitable thermal expansion characteristics. Further, a lower limit may exist as to volume fraction that may be occupied by electrode or electrolyte material. In essence, a volume fraction less than the lower limit may be impractical for any of a variety of reasons. FIG. 5 shows an arbitrary lower limit, which may be adjusted according to passive support, electrode and/or electrolyte characteristics.

Selection of Pore Characteristics

As described above and as shown in FIGS. 3, 4 and 5, pore characteristics of passive supports can affect agglomeration and/or thermal expansion. Pore characteristics may also affect stability. FIG. 6 shows a plot 600 of exemplary passive support pore characteristics (e.g., pore size) with respect to a dimension of the passive support. The dimension may be along a z-axis, for example, as shown in FIG. 2A and 2B, wherein z=0 is at or near a fuel or air supply surface and z=1 is at or near an electrode and electrolyte boundary. For example, curve 602 corresponds to a passive support having a pore size that diminishes approximately exponentially with respect to at least one dimension, curve 604 corresponds to a passive support having a pore size that diminishes approximately step-wise with respect to at least one dimension, and curve 606 corresponds to a passive support having a pore size that diminishes with respect to at least one dimension. Of course, an exemplary passive support can have a pore size that increases and/or decreases in one dimension in one or more manners while having a pore size that increases and/or decreases in another dimension in one or more same or other manners. Of course, an exemplary asymmetric support may include pores having cross-sections such as those shown in the enlarged cross-sectional views 232, 242 of FIG. 2B to minimize or control agglomeration of any material deposited into such pores and/or to minimize, match or control thermal expansion of an electrode, an electrolyte, a fuel cell, etc.

FIG. 7 shows an exemplary plot 700 of passive support pore size (e.g., mean pore size, etc.) and normalized agglomeration rate versus thermal expansion. Such a plot, or related data, can aid in the selection of passive support pore size. For example, a shaded region 710 corresponds to acceptable thermal expansion and agglomeration characteristics at or near an electrode and electrolyte boundary. Thus, an exemplary electrode and/or electrolyte has, at or near an electrode and electrolyte boundary, a passive support with a mean pore size that falls within the region 710. Of course, an asymmetric passive support (e.g., a passive support having asymmetric pore morphology) may have other mean pore sizes as well.

Exemplary Anodes

An exemplary anode relies on a passive support such as but not limited to the asymmetric passive support 220 shown in FIG. 2B. The characteristics of the passive support are optionally selected to account for agglomeration and/or thermal expansion. For example, a pore size (e.g., mean pore size) is selected to minimize agglomeration, to minimize thermal expansion and/or to approximately match thermal expansion of an electrolyte.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplary method 800 for making an anode that relies on a passive support. The method 800 includes selection of a passive support 810, for example, as discussed above. Once selected, the method 800 continues with deposition of a material suitable for use as an anode into the pores of the passive support 820. The deposition may occur via any suitable deposition process, including physical and/or chemical deposition processes (e.g., atomic layer deposition (ALD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrochemical vapor deposition (EVD), electrolytic deposition (ELD), etc.). Further, the material is optionally deposited as a liquid or a paste (e.g., extrusion of a paste into or through pores of a passive support, etc,). Sometime after deposition, the exemplary method 800 continues with sintering and/or reduction of deposited material 830.

The reduction of deposited material 830 may occur during operation of an anode in a fuel cell and/or prior to operation of the anode in a fuel cell. For example, if the reduction occurs prior to operation of the anode in a fuel cell, then further agglomeration may be minimized and/or otherwise limited. Accordingly, an exemplary anode has a predetermined propensity to agglomeration that is at least in part determined by reduction prior to operation of the anode in a fuel cell. For example, a reduction procedure may take place prior to use of an electrode as an anode in an operational fuel cell. Of course, the predetermined propensity to agglomeration may also be based in part on selected pore size and/or pore asymmetry.

In addition, reduction of anode material typically creates secondary porosity. For example, if the anode material includes a metal oxide, then reduction of the metal oxide to metal will result in a decrease in volume. This decrease in volume translates to a decrease in filled void fraction of the passive support and hence an increase in effective porosity. While secondary porosity is not typically directly related to primary porosity of a passive support, selection of primary porosity (e.g., pore size) may aid in achieving a desirable secondary porosity. The creation of secondary porosity may affect transport of species through an anode. For example, if the deposited material fills the pores of a passive support to an extent where transport of one or more desired species is detrimentally minimized and/or otherwise limited, then creation of secondary porosity via reduction of anode material can allow for suitable levels of transport the one or more desired species.

Various procedures may occur prior to reduction of deposited material. For example, if the deposition deposits excess material, then removal of the excess material may occur. Further, sintering and/or annealing of the deposited material may occur. Yet further, deposition of an electrolyte material may occur, optionally followed by sintering and/or annealing. Of course, deposition of cathode material may occur as well, optionally followed by annealing and/or sintering.

Reduction may occur according to electrical, physical and/or chemical processes. For example, reduction may occur due to an applied electrical potential or due to being subject to a reducing chemical environment. Alternatives to reduction include other electrical, physical and/or chemical processes that act to create secondary porosity in an electrode, whether the electrode is a cathode or an anode. For example, secondary porosity may be created by adding a material prior to sintering wherein the material degrades upon sintering. Techniques that rely on adding a material to a green body or green paste are discussed below with respect to interconnects and may be suitable for creating secondary porosity.

Exemplary Cathodes

An exemplary cathode optionally relies on a passive support such as but not limited to the asymmetric passive support 220 shown in FIG. 2B. When used, the characteristics of the passive support are optionally selected to account for agglomeration and/or thermal expansion. For example, a pore size (e.g., mean pore size) of a passive support is selected to minimize agglomeration, to minimize thermal expansion and/or to approximately match thermal expansion of an electrolyte.

An exemplary method for making a cathode relies on a passive support. The method includes selection of a passive support, for example, as discussed above. Once selected, the method continues with deposition of a material suitable for use as a cathode into the pores of the passive support. The deposition may occur via any suitable deposition process, including physical and/or chemical deposition processes (e.g., ALD, CVD, EVD, ELD, etc.). Further, the material is optionally deposited as a liquid or a paste (e.g., extrusion of a paste into or through pores of a passive support, etc.). Various other procedures may occur at any time during the exemplary method. For example, if the deposition deposits excess material, then removal of the excess material may occur. Further, sintering and/or annealing of the deposited material may occur. For example, sintering that causes a decrease in density of the cathode material (e.g., an electrode material suitable for use as a cathode) may create secondary porosity. Yet further, deposition of an electrolyte material may occur, optionally followed by sintering and/or annealing. Of course, deposition of anode material may occur as well, optionally followed by annealing and/or sintering.

Exemplary Fuel Cells

FIGS. 9, 10, 11 and 12 show exemplary fuel cells wherein each fuel cell 900, 1000, 1100, 1200 includes a first electrode 910, 1010, 1110, 1210 (e.g., an anode or a cathode), a second electrode 914, 1014, 1114, 1214 (e.g., an anode or a cathode) and an electrolyte 918, 1018, 1118, 1218 which is disposed at least in part between the first and second electrodes.

FIG. 9 shows a fuel cell 900 that includes a first electrode 910 based on an asymmetric passive support, a second electrode 914, which is not based on a passive support, and an electrolyte 918. The asymmetric passive support of the first electrode 910 has a mean pore size that diminishes approximately step-wise along the z-axis wherein the mean pore at or near the electrode-electrolyte boundary is smaller than the mean pore size distant from the boundary. For example, an exemplary first electrode is based on a passive support that has a small pore size region adjacent to an electrolyte wherein the small pore size region has a thickness of approximately 250 μm down to approximately 200 nm (e.g., along a z-axis). Of course, a lesser or greater thickness may be used. Further, in this example, the mean pore size of this region is less than approximately 25 μm. After deposition of electrode material into the passive support and optional removal of excess material and/or sintering, the resulting exemplary electrode 910 has a mean pore size of less than approximately 1 μm. In another example, the passive support has a porous region having a mean pore size of approximately 5 μm wherein after appropriate processing, the resulting electrode 910 has a mean pore size less than 1 μm and typically much less than 1 μm. A small mean pore size of a passive support and/or an electrode may further allow for a thinner electrolyte. For example, as a general rule, if an electrolyte is deposited onto a porous surface, then the thickness of the electrolyte should be approximately three times the mean pore size. Hence, in this example, the electrolyte may have a thickness of a few microns or less. Again, a thinner electrolyte typically promotes better ion conduction (e.g., oxygen ion transport, etc.).

FIG. 10 shows an exemplary fuel cell 1000 that includes a first electrode 1010 based on an asymmetric passive support, a second electrode 1014, which is based on an isometric passive support, and an electrolyte 1018. According to this fuel cell 1000, the first electrode 1010 is optionally an anode wherein the pore characteristics are selected to minimize agglomeration and the second electrode 1014 is optionally a cathode wherein the pore characteristics are selected to limit thermal expansion. Yet further, the pore characteristics of the first electrode 1010, at or near the boundary with the electrolyte 1018, are selected to allow for a thin electrolyte (e.g., an electrolyte having a thickness of less than approximately 5 μm while the pore characteristics of the passive support and/or any secondary porosity of the second electrode 1014 are optionally selected to match thermal expansion of the electrolyte 918. Of course, the relevant thermal expansion typically corresponds to a temperature differential associated with fuel cell operation and/or operation cycles (e.g., on-off cycles, fuel feed cycles, etc.).

FIG. 11 shows an exemplary fuel cell 1100 that includes a first electrode 1110 based on an asymmetric passive support, a second electrode 1114 based on an asymmetric passive support, and an electrolyte 1118. In this exemplary fuel cell 1100, the passive supports of the electrodes 1110, 1118 are selected to limit agglomeration, thermal expansion and/or electrolyte thickness. The selection may also include selection of pore asymmetry (e.g., asymmetric pore morphology) as it relates to agglomeration, thermal expansion and/or electrolyte thickness.

FIG. 12 shows an exemplary fuel cell 1200 that includes a first electrode 1210 based on an asymmetric passive support, an electrolyte 1218 based at least in part on the asymmetric passive support (e.g., wherein electrolyte occupies pores of the asymmetric passive support), and a second electrode 1214 adjacent to the electrolyte. In this exemplary fuel cell 1200, the passive support is selected to limit agglomeration, thermal expansion and/or electrolyte thickness. The selection may also include selection of pore asymmetry (e.g., asymmetric pore morphology) as it relates to agglomeration, thermal expansion and/or electrolyte thickness. For example, an exemplary passive support includes fine pores having mean pore size of approximately 50 nanometers to approximately 500 nanometers. Such an exemplary passive support is suitable for depositing of an electrolyte material thereon or therein (e.g., on an outer surface of the passive support, in a region adjacent to an outer surface of the passive support, etc.). If an exemplary passive support has an electrode material deposited therein, then a secondary porosity of the resulting electrode may include pores having a mean pore size of approximately 50 nanometers to approximately 500 nanometers. Such an electrode may suitably have an electrolyte material deposited thereon. Of course, in these two aforementioned examples, other pore sizes may be suitable.

In another example, a passive support has a pore region wherein pores within the region have an average pore diameter of approximately 1 μm to approximately 5 μm. After deposition of an electrode material in the pore region and subsequent processing (e.g., sintering, etc.), an electrode forms having an average pore diameter of approximately 0.01 μm (or approximately 100 Å) to approximately 0.5 μm. According to various pore blocking theories, a blocking layer has a thickness of approximately three times the pore diameter; hence, where an electrolyte material is deposited on such an electrode, the resulting electrolyte layer or blocking layer may have a thickness of approximately 0.03 μm to approximately 1.5 μm.

According to various exemplary methods, depending on configuration of the passive support, a deposition process deposits an electrolyte material throughout a passive support wherein the thickness of the electrolyte material is typically approximately equal to a fine pore diameter of pores in a fine pore region (e.g., an average fine pore diameter). In this example, an electrolyte layer forms that has a typical thickness of approximately twice the fine pore diameter. Depending on characteristics of the passive support, for example, geometric uniformity of fine pores in a fine pore region, a dense electrolyte layer may be formed using a process such as ALD wherein the dense electrolyte layer has a thickness of approximately one-half the fine pore diameter. In general, according to various exemplary methods, a dense electrolyte layer having a thickness of less than approximately 3 μm may be formed and, in particular, a thickness of approximately 1 μm.

Various exemplary methods may employ a deposition process that deposits an electrode material having a first particle size to block certain pores in a passive support and then deposits an electrode material having a second particle size wherein the second particle size is greater than the first particle size. In general, the electrode material is the same for both particle sizes. Of course, such a deposition process may be used for deposition of an electrolyte material.

FIG. 13A shows an exemplary method 1300 and corresponding exemplary structures 1350, 1360, 1370, 1380. The method 1300 includes providing an asymmetric passive support 1350, wherein the passive support has a fine pore region 1330 and a coarser pore region 1340. The method 1300 also includes depositing electrolyte material 1360, wherein electrolyte material 1318 is deposited throughout the fine pore region 1330 and the coarser pore region 1340 of the asymmetric passive support. The depositing 1360 creates a dense electrolyte region within part or all of the pores of the fine pore region 1330. Further, the electrolyte material 1318 covers at least some of the available surface of the coarser pore region 1340. The method 1300 further includes depositing a first electrode material 1370, wherein a first electrode material 1310 is deposited in the coarse pore region 1340 and possibly in part of the fine pore region 1330. The method 1300 may also include depositing a second electrode material 1380, wherein a second electrode material 1314 is deposited adjacent to the dense electrolyte region, which, as already mentioned, is in part or all of the pores of the fine pore region 1330. The exemplary fuel cell 1200 of FIG. 12 may have an asymmetric passive support having an electrolyte and two electrodes as described with reference to FIG. 13A.

FIG. 13B shows an exemplary method 1302 and corresponding exemplary structures 1350, 1362, 1372, 1382. The method 1302 includes providing an asymmetric passive support 1350, wherein the passive support has a fine pore region 1330 and a coarser pore region 1340. The method 1302 also includes depositing electrolyte material 1362, wherein electrolyte material 1318 is deposited in at least part of the fine pore region 1330 of the asymmetric passive support. A variety of techniques are suitable for limiting deposition to a part of the fine pore region 1330. For example, a material (e.g., electrode material, a removable material, etc.) is deposited into the coarse pore region 1340 and optionally part of the fine pore region 1330 to limit deposition of electrolyte material. In another example, the fine pore region 1330 limits deposition of electrolyte material. The depositing 1362 creates a dense electrolyte region within part or all of the pores of the fine pore region 1330. The method 1302 further includes depositing a first electrode material 1372, wherein a first electrode material 1310 is deposited in the coarse pore region 1340 and possibly in part of the fine pore region 1330. The method 1302 may also include depositing a second electrode material 1382, wherein a second electrode material 1314 is deposited adjacent to the dense electrolyte region, which, as already mentioned, is in part or all of the pores of the fine pore region 1330. The exemplary fuel cell 1200 of FIG. 12 may have an asymmetric passive support having an electrolyte and two electrodes as described with reference to FIG. 13B.

FIG. 14 shows an exemplary method 1400 for making a fuel cell, such as, but not limited to, the fuel cell 900 of FIG. 9, which has an anode 910, a cathode 914 and an electrolyte 918 that is disposed between the anode 910 and the cathode 914. The method 1400 includes selection of a passive support 1410, for example, as discussed above. Once selected, the method 1400 continues with deposition of a material suitable for use as a first electrode into the pores of the passive support 1420. The deposition may occur via any suitable deposition process, including physical and/or chemical deposition processes (e.g., ALD, CVD, EVD, ELD, etc.). Further, the material is optionally deposited as a liquid or a paste (e.g., extrusion of a paste into or through pores of a passive support, etc,). The deposition 1420 and optional other processes form the first electrode. Next, deposition of a material suitable for use as an electrolyte 1430 occurs. After deposition of electrolyte material, the method 1400 continues with deposition of a second material suitable for use as a second electrode 1440. The deposition 1440 and optional other processes form the second electrode. Sintering of the passive support and deposited materials 1450 follows. Reduction of the anode 1460 is then optionally used to create secondary porosity. Anode reduction may occur prior to or during use of such an electrode in a fuel cell. Of course, other suitable methods may be used to make the fuel cells of FIGS. 9, 10, 11 and 12 or other fuel cells that use exemplary electrodes and/or electrolytes disclosed herein.

Fuel Cells with Flow Channels

FIG. 15 shows an exemplary fuel cell 1500 that includes a first electrode 1510, a second electrode 1514, an electrolyte 1518, and one or more flow channels 1520, 1520′. The fuel cell 1500 optionally includes any of the various exemplary electrodes and/or electrolytes discussed above. The flow channels 1520, 1520′ may have any particular cross section and/or flow path within the first electrode 1510. Flow may be in any appropriate direction (e.g., shown into the flow channels 1520,1520′). In general, the flow channels have dimensions that are larger than pores of the passive support or of an electrode. The flow channels 1520, 1520′ may interconnect in a U-shaped manner or other manner and/or traverse the entire length (e.g., along the y-axis) of the fuel cell 1500. Alternatively, flow channels may enter from another first electrode surface (e.g., yz-plane, xy-plane, through the second electrode 1514 and electrolyte 1518 if the channels are appropriately sealed and/or insulated, etc.).

FIG. 16 shows an exemplary fuel cell 1600 that includes a first electrode 1610; two second electrodes 1614, 1614′; two electrolytes 1618, 1618′; and one or more flow channels, 1620, 1620′. The fuel cell 1600 optionally includes any of the various exemplary electrodes and/or electrolytes discussed above. Flow may be in any appropriate direction (e.g., shown into the flow channel 1620 and out of the flow channel 1620′). The flow channels 1620, 1620′ may have any particular cross section and/or flow path within the first electrode 1610. The flow channels 1620, 1620′ may interconnect in a U-shaped manner or other manner and/or traverse the entire length (e.g., along the y-axis) of the fuel cell 1600. Alternatively, flow channels may enter from another first electrode surface (e.g., yz-plane, xy-plane, through one or both of the second electrodes 1614, 1614′ and one or both of the electrolytes 1618, 1618′, if the channels are appropriately sealed and/or insulated, etc.).

Fuel Cell Frames and/or Electrode Frames

FIG. 17 shows an exemplary fuel cell or electrode 1710 and an exemplary frame 1720. The fuel cell or electrode 1710 is optionally integral with the frame 1720 or made separately and set into the frame 1720. As shown in FIG. 17, the fuel cell or electrode 1710 and the frame 1720 have substantially rectangular cross sections. In addition, the frame 1720 has one or more interconnects 1724, 1724′, 1728, 1728′ on any one or more of the frame surfaces. The interconnects 1724, 1724′, 1728, 1728′ may connect to one or more electrodes. For example, the interconnect 1724 may connect to a cathode while the interconnect 1724′ may connect to an anode. A series or an array of such frames are optionally constructed wherein the interconnects are used to electrically connect electrodes and/or fuel cells associated with the frames.

An exemplary frame is made of a dense material. For example, an exemplary frame is optionally made of a material suitable for use as a passive support yet having a density that is greater than that of the bulk passive support. Another exemplary frame is optionally made of a material that does not contiguous open pore (e.g., a material having predominately inaccessible voids or closed cells). An exemplary frame is optionally made of a material that has thermal expansion characteristics that approximate those of a passive support. In general, a frame forms a gas-tight contact with a passive support and does not allow electrical or gas contact between electrode chambers (e.g., anode and cathode chambers).

An exemplary integral passive support and frame are produced from a suitable and electrically nonconductive material (e.g., alumina, etc.). For example, a green body is formed having a passive support region and a frame region whereby sintering of the green body produces a porous passive support region and a dense frame region. The porous passive support region is optionally isometric and/or asymmetric with respect to pore characteristics. Of course, suitable interconnects may be positioned in the green body prior to sintering and/or added after sintering. Further, a gasket material is optionally added that separates the passive support region from the frame region. Such a gasket material is optionally an insulator, which can thereby allow for use of a conductive material to form a frame region.

FIG. 18 shows another exemplary fuel cell or electrode 1810 and an exemplary frame 1820. The fuel cell or electrode 1810 is optionally integral with the frame 1820 or made separately and set into the frame 1820. As shown in FIG. 18, the fuel cell or electrode 1810 and the frame 1820 have a substantially circular cross section. In addition, the frame 1820 has one or more interconnects 1824, 1824′ on any one or more of the frame surfaces.

Masking processes may be used to produce a passive support and a frame. FIG. 19 shows an exemplary method 1900 and structures 1902, 1912. The exemplary structure 1902 includes stacked passive supports 1910, 1910′, 1910″, 1910′″ with an upper mask 1904, interleaved masks 1904′, 1904″, and a lower mask 1904′″. The exemplary method 1900 involves providing the structure 1902 and then depositing a material into at least part of each of the passive supports 1910, 1910′, 1910″. The depositing optionally includes low temperature chemical vapor deposition (CVD) wherein the masks are optionally composed of a relatively flexible material (e.g., TEFLON®), soft metals like Cu, Al, etc.). The masks prevent deposition of the material into at least part of each of the passive supports 1910, 1910′, 1910″ by masking some of the open porosity. In this example, the exposed or unmasked areas form frames 1920, 1920′, 1920″.

FIG. 20A shows an exemplary fuel cell or electrode 2010 and an exemplary frame 2020. The frame 2020 include one or more interconnects 2024, 2024′. The fuel cell or electrode 2010 has an aperture 2014 that passes either partially or entirely through the fuel cell or electrode 2010. The aperture 2014 may serve any of a variety of purposes. For example, the aperture 2014 may facilitate mounting, allow for fuel and/or air flow, or exhaust and/or stabilizing the fuel cell or electrode. The fuel cell or electrode 2010 optionally includes a fuel cell or an electrode described herein. Further, such a fuel cell or electrode optionally includes more than one aperture. Yet further, an exemplary frame may include one or more apertures that can serve similar or different purposes.

FIG. 20B shows a cross-sectional view of the exemplary fuel cell or electrode 2010 and an exemplary frame 2020 shown in FIG. 20A. In this example, the aperture 2014 traverses the entire height of the fuel cell or electrode 2010. The interconnects 2024, 2024′ connect with the fuel cell or electrode 2010. In an exemplary method, passageways for such interconnects are optionally formed by positioning material in a green body whereby upon sintering, or other processing, the positioned material is degraded. Alternatively, interconnects are formed by positioning conductive interconnect material in a green body prior to sintering of the green body. Of course, other procedures for forming passageways and/or interconnects are possible, such as, imprinting, extrusion, etc.

As mentioned, the aperture 2014 may allow for fuel and/or air flow or exhaust. Further, an aperture may connect to one or more additional flow channels. In an exemplary method, flow channels are optionally formed are optionally formed by positioning material in a green body whereby upon sintering, or other processing, the positioned material is degraded.

FIG. 21 shows an exemplary method 2100 for making a passive support and a frame. The method 2100 includes selection of a first powder 2110 and selection of a second powder 2120. The first and second powders optionally include additives such as polymers that may act as binders and/or lubricants (e.g., polyvinyl alcohol, etc.). The method 2100 continues with formation of a green body 2130. Green body formation includes formation of a passive support green body region and a frame green body region. Green body formation may include use of a mold for molding, an extruder for extruding, a pressure filter for pressure filtering, and/or other device to help form a suitable green body shape having appropriate properties (e.g., density, etc.). Further, gasket material is optionally positioned at any boundary between the passive support green body region and the frame green body region. The gasket material is optionally an insulator that can insult an electrode or fuel cell from a frame. Yet further, the passive support green body region or the frame green body region may have one or more materials positioned therein to form one or more passageways, interconnects and/or flow channels. After formation of the green body 2130, the method 2100 continues with sintering of the green body 2140 to form a passive support and frame. 

1. An electrode suitable for use in a fuel cell comprising: a metal oxide-based passive support having pores wherein the passive support has an asymmetric pore morphology with respect to at least one dimension of the passive support and wherein the passive support does not conduct electrons or ions to any significant degree; and an electrode material positioned in the pores of the passive support.
 2. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the electrode material comprises a metal and/or metal oxide.
 3. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the electrode material comprises a reduced metal oxide having secondary porosity.
 4. The electrode of claim 3, wherein the metal oxide comprises nickel oxide.
 5. The electrode of claim 1, further comprising an electrolyte positioned adjacent to the electrode.
 6. The electrode of claim 5, wherein the electrolyte is positioned adjacent to a region of the electrode wherein the passive support has a smallest mean pore size.
 7. An apparatus comprising the electrode of claim 5 and further comprising a second electrode.
 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the second electrode comprises a second passive support and a second electrode material.
 9. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the asymmetric pore morphology is selected to limit mobility of the electrode material in the pores.
 10. The electrode of claim 9, wherein the asymmetric pore morphology limits mobility of the electrode material asymmetrically.
 11. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the asymmetric pore morphology is selected to limit thermal expansion of the electrode.
 12. The electrode of claim 11, wherein the asymmetric pore morphology limits thermal expansion of the electrode asymmetrIcally.
 13. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the asymmetric pore morphology is selected to limit mobility of the electrode material in the pores and to limit thermal expansion.
 14. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the asymmetric pore morphology is selected to allow the electrode to support an electrolyte layer.
 15. The electrode of claim 1, further comprising one or more flow channels.
 16. The electrode of claim 1, further comprising a frame.
 17. The electrode of claim 16, further comprising one or more interconnects.
 18. A fuel cell comprising the electrode of claim
 1. 19. The electrode of claim 1, comprising a solid oxide fuel cell electrode.
 20. The electrode of claim 1, further comprising a solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte.
 21. A method comprising: sintering an electrode material positioned in a porous region of an asymmetric metal oxide-based passive support to produce an electrode having finer pores wherein the passive support does not conduct electrons or ions to any significant degree; and depositing an electrolyte material to block at least some of the finer pores of the electrode to thereby form an electrolyte layer in contact with the electrode.
 22. The method of claim 21, further comprising reducing the electrode material to create additional electrode porosity.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the reducing reduces a metal oxide.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the reducing acts to limit further agglomeration of the electrode material.
 25. The method of claim 21, wherein the electrolyte layer has a thickness less than approximately three times an average diameter of the finer pores.
 26. The method of claim 21, wherein the electrolyte layer has a thickness less than approximately 3 μm.
 27. The method of claim 21, further comprising using the electrode and the electrolyte layer in a fuel cell.
 28. A method of generating an electrical potential comprising: providing fuel to an electrode having pores wherein the electrode comprises electrode material and a metal oxide-based passive support that has an asymmetric pore morphology with respect to at least one dimension of the passive support wherein the passive support does not conduct electrons or ions to any significant degree; and reacting the fuel with ions conducted through an electrolyte positioned adjacent to the electrode to thereby generate an electrical potential.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the electrode material comprises a reduced electrode material.
 30. The method of claim 29, further comprising reducing the electrode material, prior to the providing of fuel, to increase pore size of the electrode.
 31. A method of constructing an electrode of a fuel cell comprising: determining an acceptable range of thermal expansion of the electrode; determining an acceptable range of agglomeration of electrode material in the electrode; selecting a passive support based on the acceptable range of thermal expansion and the acceptable range of agglomeration; and constructing an electrode using the selected passive support.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the selecting includes selecting one or more pore sizes.
 33. The method of claim 31, wherein the selecting includes selecting a passive support having an asymmetric pore morphology.
 34. The method of claim 31, wherein the acceptable range of agglomeration depends at least in part on an agglomeration rate.
 35. A method of making a frame and a metal oxide-based passive support for a fuel cell or an electrode comprising: selecting a first powder for the passive support; selecting a second powder for a frame; forming a green body having a passive support green body region and a frame green body region; and sintering the green body to produce the frame and the passive support for a fuel cell or an electrode wherein the passive support does not conduct electrons or ions to any significant degree.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the forming includes molding, extruding, and/or pressure filtering.
 37. The method of claim 35, further comprising positioning a gasket material at least at a boundary between the passive support green body and the frame green body.
 38. The method of claim 35, further comprising positioning a material in the green body to form one or more passageways, interconnects and/or flow channels.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the sintering degrades the material.
 40. A fuel cell comprising: means for providing fuel to an electrode having pores wherein the electrode comprises electrode material and a metal oxide-based passive support that has an asymmetric pore morphology with respect to at least one dimension of the passive support wherein the passive support does not conduct electrons or ions to any significant degree; and means for reacting the fuel with ions conducted through an electrolyte positioned adjacent to the electrode to thereby generate an electrical potential. 